The purpose of this research brief is to identify models, assumptions, and components that should be considered when developing a plan to infuse technology into a school or school district.
Why should we plan for technology?
According to experts in the field, acquisition of equipment is no longer the major issue confronting educators. The challenge today is improved adoption, diffusion and utilization of computers. Effective implementation of the new technologies requires effective planning and action on the part of school districts to insure equity of access to resources, coordination of resources, and developing infrastructures that allow information sharing and will alleviate disparities.
What technology related problems can a school district plan address?
A plan demonstrates each school division's approach to technology, educational policy and governance, and educational reform. The plan can be rigid, mandate-oriented, facilitative-oriented or a mixed approach.
The plan can address:
What planning models are available to us?
No matter which overall planning structure is utilized, the process will generally use an adoption, political market place, or concern-based strategy or some combination of the three.
The Adoption Model. One approach used is to spread technology thinly. For example, providing an allocation formula of one computer per 50 students, or one computer for every elementary school, or setting up one computer lab in each school.
The Natural Experiment Approach focuses on broad diffusion and decentralized acquisitions to create an exploratory atmosphere. However, the result of spreading technology thinly is that it has no big impact anywhere, and difficulty arises in demonstrating technology's performance. This marginalization of technology generally reinforces current practice. The result is lackluster performance, which undermines public, professional and political support for the program.
The model presumes that if teachers are given access to the technologies, knowledge of how to use them, and the power to choose and develop their own tools to meet instructional objectives, the result will be school wide integration of technology in the curriculum. This integration, in turn, will enhance student's learning experiences and improve learning outcomes across grades and subjects (Stearn, 1991).
Such procedures are designed to elicit a "buy in" by teachers, which presumably encourages teachers to try the technology and upon trial, invest in its success. Unfortunately, the adoption diffusion strategies do not automatically ensure the best interests of the system.
By intent and default, the adoption model has established unfavorable ground rules and promoted territoriality. For example, in elementary schools, the libraries and media centers have garnered considerable control of computer resources. At junior high schools, mathematics, computer science and business departments have assumed control (Hannafin et al., 1987).
A more pragmatic approach is to focus resources on a few areas (i.e. training teachers, distributing hardware, supporting administrative uses of technology, evaluating software and providing distance learning).
A second approach would focus on the student population. This might involve using technology to further basic skills achievement in low achieving students, or providing courses to the under-served through distance education.
A third approach is the "build the infrastructure" approach. This approach focuses on creating an infrastructure of information highways to speed and sustain innovation and diffusion of information, and to equalize access to information resources. Once the backbone network is available, components can be added as resources are acquired.
The Political-Market Model. The political-market model stresses the role of the school division in spurring innovation and movement along the learning curve by setting standards, providing infrastructure, funding vital activities and mobilizing support for change.
The model often includes pilot projects that show clear winners and losers that can drive competition, training and build constituencies to help support the political agenda.
Political entrepreneurs, working for change and hoping to mobilize support, define programs broadly to win support (e.g., 'every school should have at least one computer').
While this strategy allows programs to be established, the programs remain without a strong continuity. The consequence has been a cycle of inadequate funding, lack of dissemination and program support, marginalization of the technology, and attenuation of public, professional and political interest in the programs. (Marshall et al., 1989).
Concerns-Based Planning Model. This model assumes that technology should be initiated in the area where it provides a direct benefit based on a defined need. Just because it can be used doesn't mean it should be, or that it provides the best solution. Finding a technological solution to meet division needs is more important than asking if the technology is state of the art. The plan should be closely aligned with the school division's strategic plan - tactical plans can be developed annually that fit the strategic direction of the organization.
What planning assumptions should we consider?
Planning for the use of technology should be focused on four key concepts that characterize the direction educational technology will be moving towards.
First, educational technology will be interactive and controlled by the learner It will engage the student and enhance decision-making and problem-solving. These facts alone will revolutionize the classroom and the school environment.
Secondly, educational technology will make resources more accessible, changing the place of schooling, the role of the teacher and the relationship between teacher and learner. With massive data bases and visual images immediately available, the teacher will no longer be the holder and dispenser of information and the trainer of skills. Teachers will be more like coaches, mediating technology, diagnosing learning styles and proficiencies, and facilitating a variety of strategies.
Thirdly, educational technology will be affordable. It will be within reach of all learners in and outside the school.
Fourthly, educational technology will be integrated, bringing together many tools in an exciting and creative fashion. The merging of computers and video technologies with telecommunications is already in the current system (Farley, 1992).
Finally, flexibility is needed to change plans as technology changes. Emphasizing a single use could stifle much needed innovation. Initiating and experimenting with the varied capabilities of technologies are key to successful implementation (Power on!, 1988).
Are there planning guidelines that we can follow?
The National Task Force on Educational Technology (1986) recommends that school districts should do the following:
What policy options could the plan include?
Curriculum. Emphasize curriculum reform with technology as an enhancement or supplement. The plan can:
Personnel. Plans should consider the many types of personnel needed to support the successful implementation of technology such as mentors, technicians and credentialed library media professionals.
Professional Development and Support. Plans should provide sustained and ongoing professional development and technical support for every technology user in the teaching-learning process. Consider on-site computer coordinators who provide training and support for teachers with relevant staff development activities.
Some leading school divisions have created centers for research, development, dissemination, demonstration and evaluation of technology and software. Faculty, staff and institutions receive assistance to facilitate operations related to acquisition and purchase of educational technology tool kits at these "full-service" centers.
Distance Learning. Distance learning has become a major instructional force. Twenty-five to fifty percent of the nation's students are reached by distance learning technology.
Distance education is evident at almost every educational level in almost every sector (Ely, 1991). It is evident in nearly all plans and is used in some capacity in all states.
Distance learning provides systematic instruction for individual learners who are physically separated from their teachers.
Many distance learning programs are course-based (they offer complete courses with teacher in remote location). Some uses are supplementary classroom instruction to enrich learning (satellite teleconferences, CNN newsroom, AT&T Learning network).
Electronic Networks. Electronic networks establish and coordinate an integrated network that links schools in the district to each other and the external environment. The network can be used to 1) improve existing and establish new district-wide instructional and informational resources, 2) establish a statewide student data resource for educators and administrators and 3) establish a district-wide administrative management information resource.
Backbone Networks. Many schools create a "backbone network" that will support whatever technology they buy in the future. As needs and budgets allow, they can place technology in every room of the building. Typical network plans were estimated in 1991 at $65 to $748 per classroom. However, when a school commits to such a scheme, in a sense they are committing to a whole new approach to instruction.
Home/School Link. Learning technology can help forge new links between home, school and community. For some students, the home will be the principal place for learning. For others, the school may be more important, offering a social setting, a broad range of materials and the opportunity for interaction with others.
Regardless of where learning takes place, the home will play an important role for most students. Aided by the electronic notebook (a link to other computers) and sharing education with parents (lifetime learners), education will be a part of life - not apart from life. For example, a recent study sponsored by Apple Computer, Inc. predicted that by the year 2000, students will be using "electronic notebooks" that will serve as a link to both home and school (Brubaker, 1989). The notebook may be used to:
Facilities. The fact that telecommunication and computers are merging is putting pressure on current facilities and requiring design changes in new schools.
The most noticeable changes will be in the classrooms and laboratories. More space and expensive flexible equipment will be needed such as science and language laboratories and closed circuit television. There are several key signals to planners of educational facilities about the characteristics required for an educational environment that will be viable both now and in the future.
Should we renovate or build? You can assume that new and used buildings will be part of the technology facility plan. Smith (1987) says, "School districts cope with strict financial constraints; therefore, the model must use existing school structures."
Retrofits are preexisting buildings that must be assessed and refitted with appropriate cabling, conduits, outlets, etc. The process involves first determining if the current electrical power is sufficient, where to run the cabling, and where to set up wiring closets (where cables from the computer terminals meet). Then dealing with unexpected problems like asbestos removal, insufficient ventilation and underground electrical cables (Electronic Learning, 1991).
Technology Demonstration Schools. The "Model Schools" structure has been used to facilitate the development and transfer of program design for both technology and curriculum. Demonstration schools are useful to marshall all the resources for integrating technology into the daily life of a school. They should be financed under existing mechanisms, with the exception of start-up costs. All resources (equipment, curriculum, teachers, administrators, community and parental support) for integrating technology into the daily life of the school should be planned for, with the schools connected to research centers (Power on!, 1988).
Funding. Improvements to practice call for the similar infusion of funds. But many decision-makers want to be reassured that it is worth the cost to achieve in exemplary practice, or they may continue to invest in smaller classes, systematic ongoing classes, larger salaries, fewer classes, and more planning time. Some analyses of the relative cost benefit of these factors would be helpful to inform the decision process.
Becker (1992), for example, found that successful use of computers may be costly, not only because of the direct costs of hardware and software training and human support, but also because of smaller class sizes. The trade off investments might be:
Cost Factors. Costs associated with technology programs include hardware, software, training curriculum, research and development, maintenance and construction costs. Cost of security, replacement and opportunity costs were not mentioned by the states surveyed.
Cost Estimation. Costs may be estimated by examining the prices of high quality equipment currently available. For example, in 1992 the cost of an IBM compatible computer with monochrome monitor, 140 megabyte hard disk drive, a modem and a printer was $______ from vendors on a state contract. To provide one work station with this equipment for every 25 students would cost roughly $______, not including software, furniture, local area network, staff training, etc. The same estimation can be conducted for Macintosh work stations. Costs should be calculated on a cost-per-student basis - not just total cost. A program costing $25,000 is more efficient if it serves more students.
Ongoing costs are difficult to predict since the equipment being used is new, and its useful life has yet to be established. Cost centers include the following: capital costs for hardware and equipment; development costs to put the system in operation; operating costs to run the programs; marginal costs of adding user sites or students; expansion costs to enlarge the program; social costs of time, energy and staff needed to implement the program.
Total costs vary a great deal. One source says that non-equipment costs such as training, maintenance and facilities sometimes amount to as much as three times the investment in equipment. Schools should not underestimate these costs. The price to be paid is underutilization and frustration with the equipment.
Replacement Cycles. School districts should plan their technology funding on a replacement cycle of no more than five to six years (Vision: Test, 1990).
Evaluating the Implementation of the Master Plan. Provide for ongoing evaluation of the extent and impact of the implementation of each recommendation of the Master Plan.
What components are found in school district plans?
Appelton School District Plan Components (WI)
Alameda Plan Components (CA)
Goals
Teachers
District Future
Community
Implementation Issues (11 months to implement)
Equipment
Northshore School District Plan (WA)
Curriculum
Support Systems
Elements for Success of Plan
Pilot project
Implementation
John Pisapia
Answers to questions found in this research brief have been synthesized from the following MERC publications. Copies can be purchased using the online order form on the publications page.
Pisapia, J., Schlesinger, J., & Parks, A. (1993, February). Learning technologies in the classroom: Review of the literature.
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